Theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The job of sociological theory is to
explain social behavior in the real world. For example why some groups of people have higher suicide rates
than others?
In building theory, sociologists face two basic facts: What issues should we study? How should we connect
the facts? How sociologists answer these questions depends on their theoretical “road map” or paradigm.
(It is pronounced as para-daia-um.)
Paradigm is a basic image of society. A theoretical paradigm provides a basic image of society
that guides thinking and research. For example: Do societies remain static? Do they continuously keep
changing? What keeps them stable? What makes societies ever changing?
Salient Paradigms
Sociology has three major paradigms reflecting different images of society:
1. The Structural-Functional
2. The Social-Conflict
3. The Symbolic-Interaction
1. The Structural-Functional Paradigm:
It is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and
stability.
The paradigm is based on the idea that:
1. Our lives are guided by social structure i.e. relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social
structure gives our lives shape, whether it be in families, the workplace, or the classroom.
2. Social structures can be understood in terms oftheir social functions, or consequences for the
operation of society as a whole. All social structures – from simple handshake to complex religious
rituals – function to keep society going.All social structures contribute to the operation of
society.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) compared society to the human body. The structural parts of human body –
the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs – show interdependence, each contributing to the survival
of the entire organism. Similarly various social structures, such as the family, educational system, and the
economy are interdependent, working in concert to preserve the society.
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) saw society as a system, and sought to identify the basic tasks that any and all
societies must perform to survive and the way they accomplish these tasks.
Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) looked at functions in a different way:
1. The consequences of any social pattern are likely to differ for various categories of people.
For example conventional family pattern provides for the support and development of children,
but it also confers privileges on men whilelimiting the opportunities for women.
2. People rarely perceive all the functions of a social structure. He therefore distinguishes
between manifest functions– the recognized and intended consequences of a social pattern
--- andlatent functions – the largely unrecognized and unintended consequences.Manifest functions of
educational institution – imparting knowledge, preparing young people for job market – Latent
function could be keeping so many young people out of the labor market.
Critical Evaluation
The chief characteristic of structural-functional paradigm is its vision of society as orderly, stable, and comprehensible. Goal is to figure out ‘What makes the society tick.’
How can we assume that society has a “natural” order? If that is natural then there should be no variation
in the social pattern of people at different places, and there should be no change over time.
How about the inequalities in society that generate tension and conflict?
Approach appears to be conservative.
2. The Social-Conflict Paradigm
The social conflict framework sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and
change. Unlike structural-functional paradigm, which emphasizes solidarity, this approach highlights
division based on inequality.
Factors like gender, ethnicity, social class, and age are linked to the unequal distribution of money, power,
education, and social prestige.
A conflict analysis suggests that, rather than promoting the operation of society as a whole, social structure
typically benefits some people while depriving the others.
There is an on-going conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people – rich
and poor, white and the colored, men in relation to women.
People on top strive to protect their privileges, while the disadvantaged try to gain more
resources for themselves.
Schooling perpetuates inequality by reproducing the class structure in every new generation.
Who goes to school, to college, to university, to vocational training institution?
How do the structural-functionalists look at the above analysis? Structural- Functionalists assert that such
tracking benefits all of society because students receive training that is appropriate to their academic
abilities.
Conflict sociologists counter the argument saying that ‘tracking’ often has less to do with talent than with a
student’s social background, so that the well to do are placed in higher tracks and the poor children end up
in lower tracks.
Young people from privileged families gain the best schooling, and, when they leave college, they pursue
prestigious, higher income careers. That is not the case for children from poor families. In both cases the
social standing of one generation is passed on to another, with the schools justifying the practice in terms of
individual merit.
Conflict sociologists not only try to understand the inequality in society but also try to influence to reduce
inequality in society. They want to change the system.
explain social behavior in the real world. For example why some groups of people have higher suicide rates
than others?
In building theory, sociologists face two basic facts: What issues should we study? How should we connect
the facts? How sociologists answer these questions depends on their theoretical “road map” or paradigm.
(It is pronounced as para-daia-um.)
Paradigm is a basic image of society. A theoretical paradigm provides a basic image of society
that guides thinking and research. For example: Do societies remain static? Do they continuously keep
changing? What keeps them stable? What makes societies ever changing?
Salient Paradigms
Sociology has three major paradigms reflecting different images of society:
1. The Structural-Functional
2. The Social-Conflict
3. The Symbolic-Interaction
1. The Structural-Functional Paradigm:
It is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and
stability.
The paradigm is based on the idea that:
1. Our lives are guided by social structure i.e. relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social
structure gives our lives shape, whether it be in families, the workplace, or the classroom.
2. Social structures can be understood in terms oftheir social functions, or consequences for the
operation of society as a whole. All social structures – from simple handshake to complex religious
rituals – function to keep society going.All social structures contribute to the operation of
society.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) compared society to the human body. The structural parts of human body –
the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs – show interdependence, each contributing to the survival
of the entire organism. Similarly various social structures, such as the family, educational system, and the
economy are interdependent, working in concert to preserve the society.
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) saw society as a system, and sought to identify the basic tasks that any and all
societies must perform to survive and the way they accomplish these tasks.
Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) looked at functions in a different way:
1. The consequences of any social pattern are likely to differ for various categories of people.
For example conventional family pattern provides for the support and development of children,
but it also confers privileges on men whilelimiting the opportunities for women.
2. People rarely perceive all the functions of a social structure. He therefore distinguishes
between manifest functions– the recognized and intended consequences of a social pattern
--- andlatent functions – the largely unrecognized and unintended consequences.Manifest functions of
educational institution – imparting knowledge, preparing young people for job market – Latent
function could be keeping so many young people out of the labor market.
Critical Evaluation
The chief characteristic of structural-functional paradigm is its vision of society as orderly, stable, and comprehensible. Goal is to figure out ‘What makes the society tick.’
How can we assume that society has a “natural” order? If that is natural then there should be no variation
in the social pattern of people at different places, and there should be no change over time.
How about the inequalities in society that generate tension and conflict?
Approach appears to be conservative.
2. The Social-Conflict Paradigm
The social conflict framework sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and
change. Unlike structural-functional paradigm, which emphasizes solidarity, this approach highlights
division based on inequality.
Factors like gender, ethnicity, social class, and age are linked to the unequal distribution of money, power,
education, and social prestige.
A conflict analysis suggests that, rather than promoting the operation of society as a whole, social structure
typically benefits some people while depriving the others.
There is an on-going conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people – rich
and poor, white and the colored, men in relation to women.
People on top strive to protect their privileges, while the disadvantaged try to gain more
resources for themselves.
Schooling perpetuates inequality by reproducing the class structure in every new generation.
Who goes to school, to college, to university, to vocational training institution?
How do the structural-functionalists look at the above analysis? Structural- Functionalists assert that such
tracking benefits all of society because students receive training that is appropriate to their academic
abilities.
Conflict sociologists counter the argument saying that ‘tracking’ often has less to do with talent than with a
student’s social background, so that the well to do are placed in higher tracks and the poor children end up
in lower tracks.
Young people from privileged families gain the best schooling, and, when they leave college, they pursue
prestigious, higher income careers. That is not the case for children from poor families. In both cases the
social standing of one generation is passed on to another, with the schools justifying the practice in terms of
individual merit.
Conflict sociologists not only try to understand the inequality in society but also try to influence to reduce
inequality in society. They want to change the system.
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